AR Dirham of Kaykhusraw III of the Seljuqs of Rum (CE 1265-1283).
The Seljuks of Rum, who ruled over much of Anatolia from the late 11th century, faced increasing pressure from the Mongol invasions in the 13th century. In 1243, the Seljuks were decisively defeated by the Mongols at the Battle of Köse Dağ. This defeat marked the beginning of Seljuk subjugation to the Mongol Ilkhanate, a division of the Mongol Empire that controlled Persia and surrounding regions.
Battle of Köse Dağ (1243). Hayton of Corycus, Fleur des histoires d'orient. Folio 18 of the Bibliothèque Nationale de France NAF 886 edition, here. The text of the manuscript on this page refers to the victory of the Mongols over the Turks at "Cosadac" ("Köse Dağ"), "followed by the conquest of Turkey in 1244".
After the decline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, Anatolia became fragmented and several beyliks emerged. These principalities were significant players in the region's political and military landscape. This map shows the landscape of beyliks circa 1330 CE. These beyliks would continue to wrestle with the Ilkhanate.
The Germiyan Beylik
Yakub Bey, was the founder the the Germiyan Beylik, which briefly gained superiority over other beyliks in the region, however during the reign of of his son, Mehmed Bey, the Aydınids and others became independent.
Mehmed Bey took over the leadership of the Germiyanid Beylik from his father in AH 741 (CE 1340) . It has been recorded in a stone foundation document for what is today the Kütahya Encaustic Tile Museum from the time of Yakub Bey II (1387-1429) that Kula and Simav districts, previously occupied by the Catalans, were taken back from the Byzantines by Mehmed Bey. The Catalans were a company of mercenaries led by Roger de Flor in the early 14th century and hired by Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos to combat the increasing power of the Anatolian beyliks.
Disintegration of the Ilkhante
Islamic, Mongols. Ilkhanids. Abu Saʿid, AH 716-736 / AD 1316-1335. 6 Dirhams (Silver, 25 mm, 8.5g), type H (bilingual), Astarabad, Khani Year 33 = AH 733/4 = AD 1333.
Obv: Within a circle, ‘lā ilāha illā Allāh Muḥammad rasūl Allāh ṣalla Allāh ʿalayh’ (‘There is no deity but Allah. Muhammad is the messenger of Allah. May Allah bless him’ in Arabic in the spiraled Kufic script); the names of the four Rashidun Caliphs around.
Rev: Within a circle, ‘Busaida’ (‘Abu Saʿid’ in the Uighur script); above and below, ‘al-sulṭān al-ʿālam al-ʿādil / ḍarb – Astarābād / Bahādur Khān khalada mulkuhū’ (‘The just king of the world, Bahadur Khan. May his kingdom be perpetuated. Struck in Astarabad’ in Arabic); around, ‘ḍuriba fī / sana thalāth / wa thalāthīn / al-khāniyya’ (‘Struck in the Khani Year 33).
Ref: Album 2217. Diler Ab-542.
The death of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan in 1335 without an heir led to a succession crisis. Abu Sa'id was the last effective Ilkhan, and his death created a power vacuum. With no strong central authority, various factions and claimants vied for control, leading to political chaos. The Ilkhanate fractured into multiple rival territories (The Jalayirids, Chobanids, Injuids, and Muzaffarids) and local rulers asserting their independence. The Mongol aristocracy, which had once provided strong leadership, was deeply divided, and infighting became common.
An Ilkhanate depiction of mounted warriors pursuing their enemies. Probably a conflict between Mongols. Image Public Domain from Rashid-ad-Din's Gami' at-tawarih. Tabriz (?), 1st quarter of 14th century. Water color on paper. Source: Dschingis Khan und seine Erben (exhibition catalogue), München 2005, p. 255.
This coin from the Ilkhan predecessor and father to Abu Sa'id, Uljaitu:
Ilkhanids. Öljeytü (Uljaytu). AH 703-716 / AD 1304-1316. AR Dirhams (22.5mm, 4.29 g, 1h). Type B. Caucuses mint, Album 2185.
Fragmentation of the territory of the Ilkhanate territory into various polities, including the Jalayirids, Public Domain map from Wikimedia Commons.
The Jalayarids
This coin from Husayn I (reigned 1374–1382) of the Jalayarids which ruled over parts of modern-day Iraq and Iran from CE 1335 to 1432
Jalayrids: Sultan Husayn I, 1374-1382, AR dinar (2.78g), Hamadan , AH 780, 2 dinar variant of A-2308.3 and Zeno 53369 this appears to be a very rare coin RRR in Album type TC : five-vaned pattern / quatrefoil, kalima withinAlbum notes: "The date is engraved in minuscule words between the five vanes, often so wretchedly as to be utterly illegible" This coin is Zeno 83055 (this coin)
The Muzaffarids
Here is are two coins of the Muzaffarids, another of the post-Ilkhan ruling dynasties. Shah Shuja who issued these coins was the son of Mubariz al-Din Muhammad, the founder of the Muzaffarid dynasty who seized control of several key cities, including Yazd, Kerman, Shiraz, and Isfahan, during the collapse of the Ilkhanate.
Islamic, Persia (Post-Mongol). Muzaffarids. Jamal al-Din Shah-i Shuja', second reign, AH 767-786 / AD 1366–1384. 2 Dinars (Silver, 23 mm, 2.83 g), Shiraz, AH 771 = AD 1369/70. Album 2282.7.
Obv: Kalima in three lines within square
Rev: Name and titles, mint inter-linearly in six lines across field;
Muzaffarids, Jamal al-Din Shah-i Shuja' (AH 759-786 / AD 1358-1384) AR 2 Dinars (2.52g) Type I. Shiraz, AH 7xx. Kalima in three lines within a plain quatrefoil / Name and titles, mint inter-linearly in five lines across field; mint and date in outer margin within a plain octofoil. Album 2282.9.
In 1358, Shah Shuja deposed his father, Mubariz al-Din Muhammad, who was known for his cruelty, by blinding and imprisoning him. Shah Shuja was born on March 10, 1333, in Shiraz. Under his reign the Muzaffarid kingdom reached its zenith, with its territory extending from Balochistan to Arran.
Sha Shuja was a patron of the arts and contributed poems of his own. Here is one:
Here's an English translation of a Persian poem translated into English and attributed to Shah Shuja:
I have a heart, tight like a bud, constricted by the love of the beloved, held close to my chest.
Wounded and submerged in a sea of blood from the wounds of arrows, kept close to my chest.
In the desert of her sorrow, my whole life has passed,
And nothing was gained by the heart except thorns of longing, kept close to my chest.
Do not ask about the state of my tear-shedding eyes, oh beloved,
For hidden within each eyelash's tip is a hundred storms, kept close to my chest.
O faithless one, you possess not an atom of affection or loyalty,
Is this a heart you hold at your breast or a stone and iron, kept close to your chest?
Due to separation from you, oh idol, Shah Shuja is filled with pain and sorrow,
His body full of sighs and his heart full of longing, kept close to his chest.An Akce of Mehmed Bey, Germiyan Beylik
This silver coin is from the period of Mehmed Bey (AH 741-762 / CE 1340-1361). In the early years of his rule, coins he minted featured the Kalima-i Tawhid on both sides. Tawheed (Arabic: توحيد, Tawḥīd) means the oneness or absolute unity of God in Islam.
Germiyan, Mehmed Bey, CE 1341-1361
Coin # 5 from Germiyanoğulları Beyliği Sikkeleri, AR Akçe, Mehmed Bey, Mint Location Unknown, Date Unknown
Obv: Stylized Kalima-i Tawhid لَا إِلٰهَ إِلَّا اللّٰهُ مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللّٰهِ, Mehmed محمد
Rev: Kalima-i Tawhid
While Kufic script is used on the obverse of the coin, Naskh script is used on the reverse. The word "Muhammad," which is part of the Kalima-i Tawhid on the front side, is emphasized. In this way, Mehmed Bey embedded his name within the Kalima-i Tawhid on these coins to conceal it. The reason for this concealment was the pressure exerted by the Ilkhanids. During periods of intense Ilkhanid influence in Anatolia, many beylik rulers avoided clearly inscribing their names on coins.
The Anatolian Beyliks, including the Germiyanids, Karamanoğulları, and Aydınoğulları, often sought independence from Ilkhanid rule. They resisted Ilkhanid demands and attempted to expand their territories despite Mongol pressure. This struggle for autonomy sometimes led to open conflict or subtle acts of defiance, such as the secretive minting of coins or refusal to pay tribute.
As the Ilkhanate faded, a new power in the region, the Ottomans, would gain control of the Germiyan Beylik through military action and marriage under the son and grandson of Mehmed Bey. Yakub II, son of Suleiman, son of Mehmed was the last Germiyan Beylik and he bequeathed his remainin territory to Yakub bequeathed his domains to Ottoman ruler Murad II when he died in January 1429.
I will add a few more coins from this region and time period:
A Candarid AR 1/2 Akce
This is a small rare coin from another Anatolian Beylik: Candarid Beylik
Ishfendiyarid (Candarid) : Kötürüm Bayezit, 1361-1385, AR ½ akçe (0.82g), Kastamonu, no date
Notes: see Album A-1283.1. Royal title amir a'dal, superb strike, perhaps the finest known, EF, RR. This coin uses the title amir a'dal which loosely translates to "Commander of Justice" or "Leader of Fairness" there is another variety that uses jalal al-din as the royal title which translates loosely to "The Glory of the Religion" or "Majesty of the Faith".
An Eretnid AR Akce
These coins from another of the Anatolian Beyliks of this period. 'Ala al-Din Eretna was the first sultan of the Eretnids.
Eretnids. 'Ala al-Din Eretna. AH 736-753 / AD 1336-1352. AR Akçe (20mm, 1.79 g). Type B. Kangari mint. Dated AH 749 (AD 1348/9). Album 2320.2. aEF, toned. Rare.
This next coin from the 3rd sultan, grandson of Eretna.
'Alā al-Dīn 'Alï (Ali Beg) (767-782 AH / CE 1366-1380) - Album 2324A AR akçe 1.61g, counter-marked lillah in eye-shaped frame on earlier type of the same ruler.
Amirs of Astarabad AR 6 Dirham
This last coin deserves its own write-up at some point. The Amirs of Astarabad emerged as a significant regional power in the early to mid-14th century, around the same time that the Ilkhanate was collapsing and the political landscape of Persia was becoming highly fragmented. The decline of Mongol authority created a power vacuum in the region, allowing various local rulers and factions to establish their own semi-independent states.
Islamic, Amirs of Astarabad. 6 Dirhams 4.06g, ND (AH 769-786 [1367-84]). Astarabad Mint. Amir Wali. AH 780 / 1378 CE. Album 2343.1. This coin is unusually well preserved.
The Sarbadars
The coins of the Amirs of Astarabad are often confused with the coins of the Sarbadars with whom they conflicted in the region.
Sarbadars AR 4 dirhams or ¼ Delhi tanka (2.49g), temp. ‘Ali Mu’ayyad, AH 763-786 / CE 1362-1384, Astarabad, 774 AH, Shi'ite reverse, type A-2342.1 (var. plain outer circle around obverse); Zeno #157046
Islamic, Sarbadar: 'Ali Mu'ayyad, 1362-1384, AR 6 dirhams (4.34g), Damghan, AH759, A-2341, struck by 'Ali Mu'ayyad in revolt against al-Hasan.
The Sarbadars were a semi-independent, revolutionary, populist political movement that emerged in 14th-century Iran, in the region of Khorasan. They established a state centered in Sabzevar and existed from around 1337 to 1381. The name Sarbadar (Persian: سربدار) means "those who hang from the gallows" or "ready to face death," reflecting their defiant spirit and willingness to sacrifice their lives in the struggle against tyranny.
The Sarbadar movement arose during a period of political fragmentation and social unrest following the collapse of the Ilkhanate, the Mongol state that had controlled Persia. The movement was initially a response to oppressive Mongol rule and heavy taxation imposed on the local population. The people of Khorasan, weary of Mongol dominance and exploitation, rallied under the banner of the Sarbadars, who promised a more just and egalitarian society.
The Sarbadars contributed to the decline of Mongol influence in Persia and set the stage for future political developments, including the rise of the Timurid Empire and the subsequent Safavid dynasty, which would establish Shiism as the dominant faith in Iran. ‘Ali Mu’ayyad was the longest reigning Sarbadar ruler, and navigated a turbulent period which ended with the Sarbadars being absorbed into the rising empire of Timur (Tamerlane).
Trebizond Empire
The Empire of Trebizond was a Byzantine successor state that existed from 1204 to 1461. It emerged following the capture of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade in 1204, which fragmented the Byzantine Empire and led to the creation of several independent Greek states. The empire was founded with the aid of the Georgian Queen Tamar, who was related to the Byzantine nobility, Komnenoi, by marriage.
Although this coin comes from a period about 1/2 a century earlier than most of the coins above - it seems worthwhile to include a coin from this Empire that did co-exist with the Anatolian Beyliks.
Manuel I Comnenus, Emperor of Trebizond, 1238-1263, AR Asper (21mm, 2.96g).
Obv: OA Γ/I/O/C ЄV/ΓЄ/NI/O Nimbate St. Eugenius standing facing, holding long cross in his right hand.
Rev: [...]H/N/I/Λ [...]O/K/H/N Manuel I standing facing, holding labarum in his right hand and akakia in his left; in upper right field, manus Dei.
Ref: SB 2601
Second Bulgarian Empire
To the far west at this time the Bulgarians rules independent of the Byzantine Empire. The spark for Bulgaria's re-emergence as an independent state came in 1185 with the Uprising of Asen and Peter, two brothers from the noble class who led a rebellion against Byzantine rule. The revolt was fueled by heavy taxation and dissatisfaction with Byzantine policies. With widespread support, the brothers successfully established the Second Bulgarian Empire with Veliko Tarnovo as its capital, signifying a rebirth of Bulgarian statehood.
Ivan Alexander, presided over a cultural and spiritual revival. His patronage of the arts, literature, and the Orthodox Church led to what is often called a "Second Golden Age" of Bulgarian culture. Veliko Tarnovo was the cultural and religious hub of this empire. The most significant external threat during Ivan Alexander's reign came from the Ottoman Turks, who began their expansion into the Balkans during the 14th century.
Michael Asen IV was one of the sons of Ivan Alexander and co-emperor (tsesar) from the beginning Ivan Alexander's reign. Michael Asen IV’s life was cut short when he died in 1355 during a battle against the Ottoman Turks.
Bulgaria, Veliko Tarnovo, AR Grosh (1.39g, 22mm), no date – Ivan Alexander (1331-1371) and Michael Asen IV (c. 1332-1355) .
Obv: Christ enthroned facing, raising hands in benediction; IC XC and monograms AΛЄ (Alexander) – ЦР (Tsar; mirrored) across field.
Rev: Ivan Alexander and Michael Asen IV standing facing, each holding cross-tipped scepter, holding banner between them; monograms across field; stars flanking base of staff.
Ref: Raduchev & Zhekov Type 1.13.3-6; Youroukova & Penchev 74-80.
Ivan Alexander’s rule ended with Bulgaria divided and increasingly vulnerable, leading to its eventual subjugation by the Ottomans in 1396.
Several additional notes for more coins related to this time period:
References:
Teoman, Betül Sağıt, and Gültekin Teoman. Germiyanoğulları Beyliği Sikkeleri. 36 pages.
Foss, Clive. “The Puzzling Coins of the Earliest Ottomans and Their Neighbors.” Revue Numismatique, vol. 176, 2019, pp. 181–201.
Mustafa Çetin Varlık, Germiyanoğulları Tarihi (1300-1429), Ankara, 1974.
Ágoston, Gábor, and Bruce Masters, editors. Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire. Facts on File, 2009. (also found on Acedemia.edu)
For a pretty version of teh Beylik map see: https://forum.paradoxplaza.com/forum/developer-diary/tinto-maps-7-21st-of-june-2024-anatolia.1689600/
The History of Sarbadar Dynasty, and Its Sources (1336-1381) by John Masson Smight, Jr.
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