The Catapult (1868) by Edward Poynter (1836–1919), oil on canvas, Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle upon Tyne (Accession Number: TWCMS: B6377) This grand historical painting depicts Roman soldiers manning a siege engine during the Siege of Carthage (149–146 BCE). The dramatic scene showcases the intense preparation for an assault on the walls of Carthage, a pivotal moment in the Third Punic War, which ended in the city's total destruction. The imposing catapult, with its intricate wooden structure, dominates the composition, emphasizing the scale of Roman military engineering. Notably, the famous phrase attributed to Cato the Elder, "Delenda est Carthago" ("Carthage must be destroyed"), is carved into the wood of the catapult, referencing the persistent call for Carthage's annihilation, as recorded in Plutarch's "Life of Cato" 27.1. Image public domain courtesy of Wikimedia Commons.
The Roman Republic
It could be argued that the Roman Republic reached its peak in the second half of the 2nd century BCE. The final war with Carthage, The Third Punic War (149-146 BCE), resulted in the complete destruction of this rival city. Rome was also expanding into Greece and the Hellenistic East, becoming the dominant power in the Mediterranean.
Wealth, slaves, and natural resources flowed into Rome from newly conquered provinces. The Senate's power was at its height, and traditional Republican ideals of shared governance and civic duty remained relatively intact, although cracks were beginning to show. Roman culture absorbed significant elements from Greek philosophy, art, and literature and there was in influx of Greek scholars, tutors, and artisans who elevated Roman intellectual life.
Roman law expanded with the growing scope of Roman control over provinces, and the legal foundations were formed that would influence future European legal systems.
Here are two older coins of Carthage.
Carthage, First Punic War, Circa 264-241 BC, BI Dishekel, Carthage mint
Obv: Wreathed head of Tanit left; linear border
Rev:Â Horse standing right; palm tree in background
The 3rd Punic War
After the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), Carthage was subjected to harsh terms under the Treaty of 201 BCE following the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE.
Polybius describes this terms in Book 15, Chapter 18 of his Histories:
Territorial Concessions: Carthage was required to cede all territories outside of Africa to Rome.
Restrictions on Warfare: Carthage could not wage war, even within Africa, without Rome's explicit consent.
Naval Limitations: The Carthaginian navy was limited to ten ships, effectively neutralizing its maritime power.
Financial Indemnity: Carthage agreed to pay a substantial indemnity of 10,000 talents to Rome over a 50-year period.
Hostages: Carthage was to provide 100 hostages as a guarantee of compliance with the treaty terms.
Masinissa, was an ally of Rome during the Second Punic War, and became King of Numidia, a neighboring kingdom to the west of Carthage, and was granted Roman support as a client king. Masinissa took advantage of Carthage's inability to defend itself and began seizing Carthaginian territory, especially fertile agricultural land. His kingdom steadily grew at Carthage's expense. Rome was unsympathetic to Carthage's appeals for arbitration.
When the Carthaginians struck out against Masinissa, they gave Rome suffifient reason to declare war. The Carthaginians tried to appease Rome and avoid a conflict. Carthage was already weakened by the losses against Masinissa and was in no position to battle Rome.
"They sent ambassadors to Rome to complain of Masinissa, and at the same time to accuse their own citizens of taking up arms against him too hastily and rashly, and of furnishing an occasion for an imputation of hostility on the part of their city. When one of the senators asked the ambassadors why they did not condemn their officers at the beginning of the war instead of waiting till they were beaten, and why they did not send their embassy before, instead of postponing it till now, they could not give any answer."
-Appian, The Punic Wars, 15.74 The city of Utica - 15 km from Carthage with a good port, gave themselves up to the Romans. With a strategic point from which to launch a war, the Roman Senate declared war.
The Senate, which had been previously eager and prepared for war, having gained the accession of a city so strong and so conveniently placed, now disclosed its purpose. Assembling in the Capitol (where they were accustomed to deliberate on the subject of war), the senators voted to declare war against Carthage.
-Appian, The Punic Wars, 15.75Carthage Destroyed
The outcome of this 3rd Punic War is the end of Carthage. Scipio who gave the final orders to raze the city is described by Polybius in Book 39 Chapter 5:
At the sight of the city utterly perishing amidst the flames Scipio burst into tears, and stood long reflecting on the inevitable change which awaits cities, nations, and dynasties, one and all, as it does every one of us men. This, he thought, had befallen Ilium, once a powerful city, and the once mighty empires of the Assyrians, Medes, Persians, and that of Macedonia lately so splendid. And unintentionally or purposely he quoted,—the words perhaps escaping him unconsciously,—“"The day shall be when holy Troy shall fall. And Priam, lord of spears, and Priam's folk."
-Polibius, Histories, 39.5Scipio reflects on the potential for Rome too to one day suffer a similar end.
A Denarius from 149 BC
All of the above serves as a long introduction to this coin from the Roman republic - a coin from the year in which the 3rd Punic War started.
Beyond his role as a moneyer, there is nothing known about Gaius Junius, son of Gaius's life or political career. The Junia gens was a prominent plebeian family in Rome, who claimed to descend from the legendary founder of the Roman Republic, Lucius Junius Brutus. Family members include Marcus Junius Brutus, one of Julius Caesar's assassins. However, no direct evidence links Gaius Junius C. f. to these individuals.
Roman Republic, C. Iunius C.f., AR Denarius (19mm, 3.78g), Rome, 149 BC.
Obv: Helmeted head of Roma right, behind, X
Rev: The Dioscuri galloping r.; below horses, C·IVNI·C·F and ROMA in partial tablet
Ref: Crawford 210/1
Here is another denarius from the Roman Republic, issued in 57 BC that is worth mentioning. : Q. Marcius Rex, whose statue appears on the reverse of this coin, built the Aqua Marcia, the longest of Roman aqueducts of Rome, in circa 144-140 BC. It was paid for by the spoils of Carthage and Corinth, which were both destroyed in 146.
L. Marcius Philippus, 57 BC. AR Denarius (20mm), Rome mint.
Obv: ANCVS Diademed head of Ancus Marcius to right; behind, lituus.
Rev: PHILIPIVS / A-Q-V-A (MAR) Aqueduct, on which is a statue of Q. Marcius Rex on a horse rearing to right with a plant below.
Ref: Crawford 425/1. RBW 1524. Sydenham 919.
There was an interest in colonizing a new city in North Africa during the time of Gaius Gracchus (123 BCE). The Senate put a stop to this project. It was not until about 102 years after teh destruction of Carthage that is was reestablished as a Roman colony. Dio credits Julius Caesar:
"But in the case of Corinth and Carthage, those ancient, brilliant, and distinguished cities which had been laid in ruins, he [Julius Caesar] not only colonized them, in that he regarded them as colonies of the Romans, but also restored them in memory of their former inhabitants, in that he honoured them with their ancient names; for he bore no grudge, on account of the hostility of those peoples, towards places that had never harmed the Romans."
-Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book XLIII.50.3 Appian explains that it was Julius Caesar's dream, and it was Augustus who made it reality.
At a still later time it is said that Cæsar, who afterwards became dictator for life, when he had pursued Pompey to Egypt, and Pompey's friends from thence into Africa, and was encamped near the site of Carthage, was troubled by a dream in which he saw a whole army weeping, and that he immediately made a memorandum in writing that Carthage should be colonized. Returning to Rome not long after, and while making a distribution of lands to the poor, he arranged to send some of them to Carthage and some to Corinth. But he was assassinated shortly afterward by his enemies in the Roman Senate, and his son Augustus, finding this memorandum, built the present Carthage, not on the site of the old one, but very near it, in order to avoid the ancient curse. I have ascertained that he sent some 3000 colonists from Rome and that the rest came from the neighboring country. And thus the Romans took Africa away from the Carthaginians, destroyed Carthage, and re-peopled it again 102 years after its destruction.
Appian, Punic Wars, 8.20.136A Carthaginian colony was delayed by Julius Caesar's assassination, until ~29 BCE when Augsutus revived it. This coin from AD 10 from the Colonia Julia Carthago.
Roman Provincial Coins, Africa Proconsularis, Carthage, Augustus (27 BC-AD 14). Ae. D V Sp and P I Sp, Duovirs. Struck ~AD 10.
Obv:Â IMP(erator) C(aesar) D(ivi) f(ilius) A(ugustus) P(ontifex) M(aximus) P(ater) P(atriae), Bear Head Left
Translation: Emperor Caesar, Son of the Divine, Augustus, Chief Priest, Father of the Fatherland
Rev: P(ublius) I(—) SP(—) D(ecimus) V(—) SP(—) II VIR(i) C(olonia) I(ulia) C(arthago) P(ecunia) P(ublica) D(ecreto) D(ecurionum)
Translation: Publius I— SP— (and) Decimus V— SP—, Duovirs, the Julian Colony of Carthage, Public Money, by Decree of the Decurions
Ref: RIC 1 745
and this Roman coin 3 centuries later with a personified Carthage on the reverse, issued from Roman Carthage.
Galerius, as Caesar, 293-305, AE follis, (26-28mm, 13.57g, 6h), Carthage, circa 298-299
Obv: MAXIMIANVS NOB CAES Laureate head of Galerius to right
Rev: SALVIS AVGG ET CAESS FEL KART / Δ Carthago standing facing, head to left, holding fruits in both hands
Ref: RIC 30b. ex. E.E. Clain-Stefanelli Collection
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