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Sextus Pompey

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The Pharos of Ptolemy King of Egypt, John Bowles, Black Horse, Cornhill London, Robert, AD 1645-1703 (Engraver).
The Pharos of Ptolemy King of Egypt, John Bowles, Black Horse, Cornhill London, Robert, AD 1645-1703 (Engraver).

The Civil War between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great (Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus) ended with Pompey's assassination shortly after his defeat at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BCE. Having lost decisively to Julius Caesar, Pompey fled to Egypt hoping for refuge or support from the court of the young King Ptolemy XIII.


Pompey's Death

Ptolemy’s advisers, fearful of angering Caesar, arranged to have Pompey killed to ingratiate themselves to the victors. On September 28, 48 BCE, as Pompey disembarked in Egypt near Pelusium, he was stabbed to death and beheaded. The Egyptians then presented his severed head to Caesar.Rather than rewarding them, Caesar reportedly expressed disgust at the murder of his former ally‐turned‐rival.


Pompey's sons, Gnaeus and Sextus, continued to restist the control of Julius Caesar in Spain until a decisive loss in 45 BCE at Munda. Afterwards Gnaeus was hunted down and executed. However, Sextus Pompey escaped with his life and went into hiding.


Julius Caesar's Death

After Julius Caesar’s assassination in 44 BC, Rome quickly returned to civil war between the Second Triumvirate (Mark Antony, Octavian, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) the Liberators (Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus).


The assassins of Caesar initially controlled parts of the East, the newly formed Second Triumvirate quickly sought to consolidate power in Italy. During this period, Sextus emerged as a rallying figure for the remaining Pompeians and those disaffected by the triumviral regime, securing bases first in Spain and then establishing himself more firmly in Sicily, where he commanded a considerable fleet.


The re-emergence of Sextus Pompey

By 42 BC, Sextus Pompey had become a significant naval power in the central Mediterranean with a notable success with a victory over Salvidienus Rufus—one of Octavian’s admirals. This triumph reinforced his position as “Master of the Seas” and allowed him to challenge the triumvirs’ control of Rome’s grain supply routes, turning Sicily into a base from which he could both defend himself and project power into mainland Italy.


A Denarius from Sextus Pompey

This denarius, from the series that Crawford lists as 511, was issue by Sextus Pompey from Sicily. Woytek, in Arma et Nummi (2003), argues that these coins, that bear the legend "MAG PIVS IMP ITER," were likely issued after 38 BC, following Sextus Pompeius's second acclamation as Imperator.


This dating contrasts with earlier assumptions that placed the issuance of these coins as early as 42 BC. Woytek suggests that the coins were minted during the later stages of Sextus Pompeius's control over Sicily, specifically after his significant naval victory over Salvidienus Rufus in 42 BC, which bolstered his claim as "Neptune's son." The coins reflect his propaganda efforts, emphasizing his naval strength, divine association with Neptune, and his role as a protector of the Roman people.

Roman Republic, Sextus Pompeius Pius, AR denarius (3.86 g), military mint in Sicily, 37–36 BC.

Obv: MAG·PIVS·IMP·ITER, pharos of Messana, surmounted by statue of Neptune, helmeted, holding trident in right hand and rudder in left hand and placing left foot on prow; before, ship, left, with aquila in prow and sceptre tied with fillet on stern. Border of dots.

Rev: PRA͡EF·CLAS·ET·ORA͡E·M͡A͡RIT·EX·S·C Scylla, wielding rudder with both hands. Border of dots.

Ref: Crawford 511/4a, Albert 1559, CRI 335a.

Note: Dated according to Woytek, Arma et Nummi, Vienna 2003, pp. 442/497. Punch marks on the reverse and dark, slightly iridescent toning. ex Herkles Numismatics; ex H.D. Rauch eAuction 43, 03-Apr-2024 lot 341.


Woytek prefers to date the series (Crawford 511) of Sextus Pompey to the period after 38 BC. He argues that these coins, which include the second imperatorial acclamation (IMP ITER), likely followed the earlier coinage (RRC 479) that did not yet reflect this title. Woytek suggests that the coins with the title IMP ITER were minted after Sextus Pompey received his second acclamation, which occurred in 38 BC. This dating is supported by the logical progression of the titles used on the coins and the historical context of Sextus Pompey's activities.


The reverse expands to : "Praefectus classis et orae maritimae ex Senatus consulto" which translates as “Prefect (Commander) of the fleet and of the maritime coast, by decree of the Senate.”


The imagery of this coin: the pharos, the galley, the statue of Neptune, and Scylla wielding a rudder, all emphasizing his mastery of the sea and promoting his association with Neptune.


Pharos is an island near Alexandria that housed on of the 7 wonders of the world, the "Lighthouse of Alexandria" built under the reigns of Ptolemy I Soter (367-283 BCE) and his son Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285 -246 BCE). Pharos is also the Greek word for lighthouse and the source of the Italian word today: "faro" meaning lighthouse. The lighthouse on this coin is the Lighthouse at Messana (modern Messina Italy) in Sicily.

The Straits of Messina between Scicily (left) and Calabria (right)
The Straits of Messina between Scicily (left) and Calabria (right)

Scylla the sea monster in the straits of Messina that Homer described in Ulysses voyage home and an Italian town in Calabria that retains the name Scilla at the top of the straits in map above.

"Inside it Scylla sits and yelps with a voice that you might take to be that of a young hound, but in truth she is a dreadful monster and no one — not even a god — could face her without being terror-struck. She has twelve misshapen feet, and six necks of the most prodigious length; and at the end of each neck she has a frightful head with three rows of teeth in each, all set very close together, so that they would crunch any one to death in a moment, and she sits deep within her shady cell thrusting out her heads and peering all round the rock, fishing for dolphins or dogfish or any larger monster that she can catch, of the thousands with which Amphitrite teems. No ship ever yet got past her without losing some men, for she shoots out all her heads at once, and carries off a man in each mouth."
-Homer, Odyssey, Book XII

A date of 42 BCE would place this coin near the time of this account of the battle with Savidemus described by Appian.

Pompeius advanced with a large fleet to meet Salvidienus, and a naval engagement took place between them at the entrance of the straits near the promontory of Scyllaeum. The ships of Pompeius, being lighter and manned by better sailors, excelled in swiftness and skill, while those of the Romans, being of great tonnage and size, laboured heavily. When the usual rush of waves through the straits came on, and the sea dashed hither and thither under the influence of the current the crews of Pompeius suffered less than their adversaries, because they were accustomed to the agitation of the waters; while those of Salvidienus, not having their sea-legs through want of experience, and being unable to work their oars, or manage their rudders, were thrown into confusion. Accordingly, about sunset, Salvidienus was the first to give the signal of retreat. Pompeius withdrew also. The ships suffered about equally on both sides. Salvidienus retired to the port of Balarus, fa­cing the straits, where he repaired what was left of his damaged and wasted fleet.
-Appian, Civil Wars, Book IV.85

The date preferred by Woytek, after 38 BC, would line up with this later account from Cassius Dio that describes the destruction of of Octavian's fleet while Pompey's more experienced fleet stayed safe in the storm.

"After this event an extraordinary windstorm on the following day fell upon Caesar and Sabinus as they were anchored together and made their previous reverse seem a trifling matter. The fleet of Sabinus suffered the less, for Menas, being an old hand on the sea, foresaw the storm and immediately shifted his ships to the open sea and moored them there, placing them at intervals with their anchor-lines slack, so that the lines should not be stretched and break, and kept rowing directly against the wind; in this way no rope was strained and he remained constantly in the same position, recovering by the use of the oars all the ground he lost by the force of the wind. But the other commanders, since they had gone through a severe experience the day before, and had as yet no accurate knowledge of nautical matters, were cast upon the shore close by and lost many ships. Night, which had been of the greatest aid to them before, was now the chief cause of disaster; for the wind blew violently all night long, tearing the vessels from their anchors and dashing them against the rocks. That was the end of them; and the sailors and marines likewise perished ingloriously, since the darkness prevented them from seeing ahead and they could not hear a word because of the uproar and of the reverberation from the mountains, the more so as the wind drowned out other sounds."
-cassius Dio, Roman History, 48.48

The imagery on the coin emphasizes Sextus Pompey's dominance over the seas, his ability to protect and guide his followers, and reinforces the strategic importance of Messana and the surrounding waters in his naval operations.


Epilogue

Sextus Pompey's control of Sicily allowed him to force a formal treaty with Octavian and Mark Anthony, appointing him governor of Sicily and other islands. However the treaty didn't hold and he was again under attack by OCtavian. After some initial success he was defeated by Agrippa at Naulochus, not far from Messina, after which he fled to Asia Minor where he was captured and executed by Marcus Titius.

"Pompey lost almost all his ships, and fled to Asia, where, wavering between the role of general and suppliant, now endeavouring to retain his dignity and now pleading for his life, he was slain by Titius on the orders of Marcus Antonius, whose aid he had sought. The hatred which Titius brought upon himself by this act lasted for a long time; indeed, afterwards, when he was celebrating games in Pompey’s theatre, he was driven amid the execrations of the people from the spectacle which he himself was giving."
-Velleius Paterculus, Compendium of Roman History, II.LXXIX

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