Roman Style : al-Malik al-Salih

This coin struck me as curious - copying 4th century Roman style portraits in the 12th century.  Al-Malik al-Ṣāliḥ, was the Zengid emir of Damascus and emir of Aleppo in 1174, and the son of Nur ad-Din.  This coin is unusual with a large 23mm 5g flan - of 59 coins in ACSearch only one other is 5 grams or more and most are under 3.5 grams - many are 1/2 fals.

Anatolia & al-Jazira (Post-Seljuk), Zengids (Syria), al-Malik al-Salih Isma'il, AH 569-577 / AD 1173-1181, AE fals (bronze, 5g, 23mm), dated 1175/6 CE (AH 571), mint al-Halab (حَلَب, Aleppo). 

Obv: Diademed, draped and cuirassed Roman-style bust right, mint name and AH date around

Rev: Five line Arabic legend citing the names and titles of Abbasid Caliph al-Mustadi and Al-Salih Isma’il in five lines across field :'illah / al-mustadi bi-amr- / amir al-mu'minin / al-malik al-salih / ismai'il'

Ref: S&S Type 76, Album A-1854.1

Album describes as:

Al-Malik al-Ṣāliḥ ʿIsmāʿīl ibn Nūr al-Dīn (c. 1163 – 4 December 1181) was the last independent Zengid ruler of Syria; nominal emir of Damascus and Aleppo (1174).

Al-Malik al-Ṣāliḥ Ismāʿīl was born around 1163 as the only son of Nūr al-Dīn Maḥmūd ibn Zengī, the powerful Zengid sultan of Syria. Groomed as the heir to a domain stretching from Aleppo to Damascus, the young Ismāʿīl inherited a formidable legacy of jihad against the Crusaders and Sunni revival forged by his father.

Death of Nūr al-Dīn

In May 1174, Nūr al-Dīn died unexpectedly in Damascus, leaving eleven-year-old al-Ṣāliḥ as his sole male heir. Despite the clear line of succession, the ruler’s youth precipitated a power struggle among Nūr al-Dīn’s senior emirs. Competing factions vied to control the boy-sultan and his late father’s empire, foreshadowing a succession crisis even before al-Ṣāliḥ’s formal accession.

In name, Ismāʿīl was enthroned in 1174 with the honorific al-Malik al-Ṣāliḥ (“the Righteous King”), but real power initially lay with his guardians and regents. Al-Ṣāliḥ’s authority was immediately challenged by varied Zengid factions.

Relocation to Aleppo

 In Damascus, the army commander Ibn al-Muqaddam seized control and hesitated to recognize a child sovereign. Fearing the encroachment of rival claimants, the eunuch atabeg (guardian) Gümüştekin - a trusted lieutenant of Nūr al-Dīn - acted swiftly to safeguard the heir. Gümüştekin took charge of al-Ṣāliḥ and took him from Damascus to the northern stronghold of Aleppo.

By relocating the prince to Aleppo (the city Nūr al-Dīn had first governed), Gümüştekin hoped to rally a core of Zengid loyalists around the boy and keep him out of reach of enemies. This move essentially shifted the seat of the Zengid court back to Aleppo, where Ismāʿīl was installed under Gümüştekin’s tutelage as nominal sultan.

Saladin Engaged

Meanwhile, in Damascus, Ibn al-Muqaddam and other officers, uncertain of their position, sought external support – inviting Nūr al-Dīn’s former vassal, the rising emir of Egypt Ṣalāḥ al-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb (Saladin), to intervene. The stage was set for a contest over Nūr al-Dīn’s legacy, with al-Ṣāliḥ caught in the middle.

Gümüştekin forged an alliance with Saif al-Dīn Ghazi II, al-Ṣāliḥ’s cousin and the Zengid emir of Mosul in Iraq hoping to present a united Zengid front against Saladin’s expanding influence. This coalition sought to check Saladin’s ambitions and to recover Damascus, which had effectively slipped from Zengid grasp.

In late 1174, events unfolded rapidly. Saladin, who had established himself as ruler of Egypt, marched into Syria under the pretext of protecting al-Ṣāliḥ’s rights while in reality aiming to seize power. Answering the Damascene invitation, Saladin entered Damascus in November 1174 without battle, proclaiming himself the guardian of al-Ṣāliḥ but sidelining the boy’s Aleppan regents. He took control of Nūr al-Dīn’s treasury and domains in southern Syria, even as he publicly maintained the fiction of loyalty by having the Friday prayers (khutba) read in al-Ṣāliḥ’s name.

Saladin was now master of Damascus, while Gümüştekin held Aleppo with al-Ṣāliḥ. The once-unified Zengid realm was split into competing spheres – Aleppo under al-Ṣāliḥ and Damascus under Saladin - each claiming legitimacy.

A Deal with the Crusaders

To preserve Zengid sovereignty, Gümüştekin sought Frankish (Crusader) neutrality or support: in 1176 he negotiated with Bohemond III of Antioch to release high-ranking Crusader captives - such as Reynald of Châtillon and Joscelin III - from Aleppan prisons in an attempt to keep Aleppo out of Saladin’s grasp. 

The years 1174–1176 witnessed intense military conflict between the forces loyal to al-Ṣāliḥ and the upstart power of Saladin, who sought to unite Syria under his own Ayyubid dynasty. Saladin’s march north in 1174–75 brought him into direct conflict with the child-king’s regency. Saladin’s initial attempts to take Aleppo failed - the city was strongly defended and inspired by loyalty to Nūr al-Dīn’s son. Meanwhile, Saif al-Dīn of Mosul led an army to Syria to support al-Ṣāliḥ’s cause, forming a broad anti-Saladin coalition. 

Battle of the Horns of Ḥamāh

In the Battle of the Horns of Ḥamāh (April 13, 1175), Saladin’s forces met the combined armies of Aleppo (led by Gümüştekin) and Mosul. Saladin won a resounding victory, decisively defeating the Zengid allies. This triumph left Saladin in control of central Syria; by 1175 he had been recognized by the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad as the legitimate ruler of Damascus and all territories taken from the Zengids. In the aftermath, Aleppo’s authorities – alarmed by their defeat - sought a temporary truce. They acknowledged Saladin’s sovereignty over Damascus and his conquests, while retaining Aleppo and certain northern districts for al-Ṣāliḥ .

In 1176, Saif al-Dīn of Mosul (al-Ṣāliḥ’s cousin) regrouped for another attempt to rescue Aleppo’s independence. He conspired with Gümüştekin to catch Saladin off-guard. According to some accounts, an envoy’s blunder tipped off Saladin to this secret alliance – the envoy accidentally handed Saladin a letter intended for Aleppo, revealing the plot. Saladin reacted swiftly, summoning reinforcements from Egypt and marching north to confront the Zengid forces before they could unite. 

Battle of Tall al-Sultān

The two sides met near Aleppo at the Battle of Tall al-Sultān (April 22, 1176). Initially, Saladin’s army was surprised in a vulnerable position while watering horses, and Saif al-Dīn had an opportunity for an easy victory. But Saif al-Dīn squandered the moment by delaying attack - reportedly remarking, “Tomorrow will be soon enough” to crush the “upstart” Saladin. 

In the battle that followed, Saladin personally rallied his troops and turned the tide; the Zengid coalition’s lines collapsed and they suffered a second major defeat. Saif al-Dīn retreated toward Mosul, and Saladin’s men captured his camp along with great spoils. The victory at Tall al-Sultān solidified Saladin’s military dominance in Syria.

A Treaty with Saladin

After this defeat, Aleppo’s leaders saw little hope in continued resistance. Saladin proceeded to capture nearby fortresses (he seized Azaz northwest of Aleppo in May–June 1176) and once again appeared before the walls of Aleppo. Weary of war and fearful that the city would fall by storm, al-Ṣāliḥ’s regents opened negotiations. On 29 July 1176, a peace treaty was concluded: Aleppo’s advisers formally recognized Saladin as sovereign king in Egypt and Damascus, while Saladin guaranteed al-Ṣāliḥ’s rule over Aleppo and returned to him the fortress of Azaz. 

By these terms, al-Ṣāliḥ (through Gümüştekin and the Aleppan elite) effectively conceded large parts of Syria to Saladin in exchange for retaining his northern Syrian patrimony. The treaty established Saladin as the acknowledged master of Syria outside Aleppo, and al-Ṣāliḥ’s truncated sultanate survived in Aleppo with Saladin’s permission. To seal his legitimacy, Saladin famously married Nūr al-Dīn’s widow (al-Ṣāliḥ’s stepmother, the lady Ismat al-Dīn Khātūn) and in turn had himself proclaimed ruler of all Syria by the caliphal authorities. 

Aleppo remained outside Saladin’s direct control for the time being - a last bastion of the Zengid line, secured by diplomacy. Al-Ṣāliḥ’s regents had played a weak hand skillfully, leveraging his status and even enlisting the Assassins (Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs) to harass Saladin’s camp during the Aleppo siege. The boy-sultan remained on his throne in Aleppo, albeit overshadowed by the Ayyubid triumph.

A Period of Relative Peace

After the treaty of 1176, al-Ṣāliḥ Ismāʿīl’s realm was confined chiefly to Aleppo and a few surrounding districts. The next five years - until his death in 1181 - were a period of relative peace for Aleppo, allowing the young ruler and his court to focus on internal governance and courtly affairs.

In theory, al-Ṣāliḥ attained his majority during these years (turning 15 around 1178), but chroniclers indicate that real power remained in the hands of his senior emirs. Gümüştekin continued as de facto ruler of Aleppo in al-Ṣāliḥ’s name until 1177, and the dynamics at court were turbulent.

The regent’s autocratic behavior and his secret dealings with the Crusaders eventually led to his downfall: later in 1177, Aleppan nobles opposed to Gümüştekin accused him of treason (chiefly citing his contacts with Frankish Antioch) and seized him. Gümüştekin was tortured and executed in September 1177 at the fortress of Ḥārim. Several of his household officers and guards were put to death or imprisoned the same day.

This violent purge ended the eunuch’s regency and may have allowed al-Ṣāliḥ a greater, though still limited, role in state affairs during his final years. After Gümüştekin’s death, governance likely passed to a council of Aleppo’s veteran emirs and possibly a new atabeg. al-Ṣāliḥ remained the figurehead of authority, now a teenager at the head of a still-formidable regional power.

Aleppo aimed to maintain stability and prosperity in a city that had long been a Zengid capital. The treaties with Saladin ensured a cessation of hostilities, enabling Aleppo’s economy and administration to recover from the strain of war.

Coins of al-Ṣāliḥ

One significant act associated with al-Ṣāliḥ’s court was the minting of coins in his name. As the sovereign of Aleppo, al-Ṣāliḥ issued coinage that proclaimed his titles and legitimacy. Numismatic evidence shows coins struck at Aleppo between 1174 and 1181 bearing al-Ṣāliḥ’s name alongside honorifics linking him to Nūr al-Dīn’s glory.

These coins reinforced his image as “King of Syria (al-Shām) and al-Jazīra” - a claim that he officially retained, though in practice Saladin held much of Syria. In the symbolism of the time, as long as al-Ṣāliḥ was alive and his name appeared in the khuṭba (Friday prayer) and on coins, the Zengid dynasty’s legitimacy endured in the eyes of many Syrian Muslims. 

The Death of al-Ṣāliḥ

In December 1181, tragedy struck the Zengid house: al-Malik al-Ṣāliḥ Ismāʿīl died in Aleppo at the age of about 18 or 19, reportedly after a short illness. His untimely death had profound consequences. Not only did it extinguish the direct male line of Nūr al-Dīn, but it also removed the figurehead around whom Syrian resistance to Saladin had coalesced.

The Frankish Crusaders, notably Prince Reynald of Châtillon and King Baldwin IV of Jerusalem, moved quickly to prevent Saladin from seizing Aleppo. In early 1182, Reynald launched a diversionary raid towards the Red Sea port of Eilat/Ayla, threatening Saladin’s territory in Transjordan. This aggressive Frankish action forced Saladin’s Syrian lieutenants (including his nephew Farrukh-Shāh) to abandon any immediate march on Aleppo and instead turn south to confront Reynald. The Crusaders’ intervention was calculated: they preferred Aleppo in Zengid hands (with whom they might strike truces) rather than see Saladin further encircle the Latin states. The strategy succeeded – Saladin’s forces were delayed just long enough for the Zengids of Mosul to occupy Aleppo without a fight.

19th Century depiction of a victorious Saladin by Gustave Doré (1832–1883) Public Domain image via Wikimedia Commons.

The End of Zengid rule in Syria

Saladin, in 1183, moved relentlessly to complete his unification of Syria. In spring 1183 he besieged Aleppo, now defended by Imād al-Dīn Zengī II. Lacking the charismatic legitimacy of a direct Nūr al-Dīn heir (al-Ṣāliḥ) and facing Saladin’s veteran armies, Aleppo could not hold out indefinitely. After some weeks of negotiations, Imād al-Dīn Zengī II agreed to surrender Aleppo to Saladin in June 1183. The terms were relatively generous: Saladin gave Zengī II the town of Sinjar (restoring him there) and other lands, and Zengī II in turn recognized Saladin’s authority. 

On 12 June 1183, Saladin triumphantly entered Aleppo – peacefully taking possession of the great citadel that had eluded him for nine years. This marked the end of Zengid rule in Syria. Saladin installed his own governor (his teenage son al-Ẓāhir Ghāzī was soon appointed lord of Aleppo) and Aleppo became part of the Ayyubid Sultanate.

References:

• Ibn al-Athīr, ʿAlī. al-Kāmil fīʾl-Tārīkh (The Complete History). Edited by Carl J. Tornberg. 12 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1851–76. Partial English trans. in D. S. Richards, The Chronicle of Ibn al-Athir for the Crusading Period, vol. 2. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2007. — Contemporary master-chronicle; principal source for Nūr al-Dīn’s death, al-Ṣāliḥ’s minority, and Saladin’s conquest of Aleppo.

• Ibn Shaddād, Bahāʾ al-Dīn. al-Nawādir al-Sulṭāniyya wa-l-Maḥāsin al-Yūsufiyya (The Rare and Excellent History of Saladin). Edited by ʿAbd al-Ḥamīd. Cairo, 1897. English trans. D. S. Richards. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002. — Insider biography of Saladin; vivid on the sieges of Aleppo and al-Ṣāliḥ’s final years.

• ʿImād al-Dīn al-Iṣfahānī. al-Barq al-Shāmī. Edited by Ḥaydar Rabīʿ. Amman: University of Jordan, 1987. — Eye-witness Ayyubid chronicle of the campaigns 1174–83, providing the court view of Saladin’s struggle with the Zengids.

• Ibn al-Qalānisī. Dhayl Tārīkh Dimashq. Translated by H. A. R. Gibb as The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades. London: Luzac, 1932. — Damascene narrative that records Nūr al-Dīn’s death and Saladin’s peaceful entry into Damascus.

• William of Tyre. Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis Gestarum. Translated by E. A. Babcock and A. C. Krey as A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea. New York: Columbia University Press, 1943. — Latin Crusader perspective on Zengid-Ayyubid politics up to 1184.

• Ibn al-ʿAdīm. Zubdat al-Ḥalab fī Tārīkh Ḥalab. Edited by Sami Dahhan. Damascus, 1951. — Local history exploiting lost Aleppan archives; preserves detail on al-Ṣāliḥ’s court and monuments.

• Abū Shāma al-Maqdisī. Kitāb al-Rawḍatayn fī Akhbār al-Dawlatayn. Edited by Muḥammad al-Ḥalabī. 2 vols. Cairo, 1870s. — Thirteenth-century synthesis that frames al-Ṣāliḥ’s reign within the transition from Zengid to Ayyubid rule.

• Humphreys, Stephen R. “Zengids, Ayyubids and Seljuqs.” In The New Cambridge Medieval History, vol. 4, pt. 2, edited by David Luscombe and Jonathan Riley-Smith, 721–52. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. — Authoritative modern overview; highlights al-Ṣāliḥ’s death as pivotal to Saladin’s success.

• Holt, P. M. The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. London: Longman, 1986. — Concise narrative of Islamic‐Crusader interaction; chapter 3 analyzes al-Ṣāliḥ’s regency and Aleppo’s surrender.

• Eddé, Anne-Marie. Saladin. Paris: Flammarion, 2008. English ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2011. — Definitive biography with extensive documentation of Saladin’s dealings with al-Ṣāliḥ and the Aleppan regency.

• Elisséeff, Nikita. Nour ad-Din: un grand prince musulman de Syrie au temps des Croisades (1146–1174). 3 vols. Damascus: Institut Français de Damas, 1967. — Monumental study of Nūr al-Dīn; vol. 2 details the succession crisis and Gümüştekin’s control of al-Ṣāliḥ.

• Hillenbrand, Carole. The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999. — Broad thematic treatment; underscores al-Ṣāliḥ’s symbolic role in Syrian resistance ideology.

• Taqush, Suhayl (S. S. Takush). Tārīkh al-Zankīyīn fī al-Mawṣil wa-l-Shām 521–630 H / 1127–1233 M. Beirut: Dār al-Nafāʾis, 2000. — Modern Arabic monograph on the entire Zengid dynasty, rich in primary-source citations.

• “Banū Zankī (Zengids).” In Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., Leiden: Brill, 1960–2005. — Concise reference entry summarizing lineage, chronology, and major events of the Zengids.

• Asbridge, Thomas. The Crusades: The Authoritative History of the War for the Holy Land. New York: Ecco/HarperCollins, 2010. — Readable synthesis; places Saladin’s annexation of Aleppo in the wider Crusader–Muslim contest.